Risk perception related to COVID-19 among the Iranian general population: an application of the extended parallel process model.

BACKGROUND: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has emerged as a major global public health challenge. This study aimed to investigate on how people perceive the COVID-19 outbreak using the components of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) and to find out how this might contribute to possible behavioral responses to the prevention and control of the disease. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in Iran during March and April 2020. Participants were recruited via online applications using a number of platforms such as Telegram, WhatsApp, and Instagram asking people to take part in the study. To collect data an electronic self-designed questionnaire based on the EPPM was used in order to measure the risk perception (efficacy, defensive responses, perceived treat) related to the COVID-19. Descriptive statistics, chi-square, t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA), were used to explore the data. RESULTS: A total of 3727 individuals with a mean age (SD) of 37.0 (11.1) years participated in the study. The results revealed significant differences in efficacy, defensive responses and perceived treat among different population groups particularly among those aged 60 and over. Women had significantly higher scores than men on some aspects such as self-efficacy, reactance, and avoidance but men had higher perceived susceptibility scores compared to women. Overall 56.4% of participants were engaged in danger control (preventive behavior) while the remaining 43.6% were engaged in fear control (non-preventive behavior) process. CONCLUSION: More than half of all participants motivated by danger control. This indicated that more than half of participants had high perceived efficacy (i.e., self-efficacy and response efficacy). Self-efficacy scores were significantly higher among participants who were older, female, single, lived in rural areas, and had good economic status. The results suggest that socioeconomic and demographic factors are the main determinants of the COVID-19 risk perception. Indeed, targeted interventions are essential for controlling the pandemic.

Investigating the COVID-19 related behaviors in the public transport system.

BACKGROUND: Determining people's healthy behaviors related to COVID-19 could be effective in providing preventive measures. The present study aims to investigate preventive behaviors associated with COVID-19 including wearing masks and keeping physical distance among the passengers on buses and public taxis measures to evaluate the ventilation systems in these vehicles. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was performed on 753 passengers on buses and taxis in Tabriz, northwestern Iran, from 15 February to 1 March 2021. Multistage sampling method was used to select the participants. Tabriz was socioeconomically divided into three areas, including high, moderate, and low socioeconomic status. Three researchers were observed passengers behaviors standing at the selected stations and assessed their behaviors according to study checklist. RESULTS: In total, the data were gathered from 358 (47.5%) female and 395 (52.5%) male in public transport systems. The results of this study indicated that female passengers used masks significantly more than men (P < 0.001). About 40% of men and women did not keep a physical distance of at least one meter in the public transportation system. Failing to keep social distancing was mostly observed among people with low SES (N = 103, 54%) and those who were in city center (N = 88, 48.5%). According to the multivariate regression analysis, for not wearing mask: being male [OR 4.94; 95%CI (2.62-9.28)] and using bus [(OR 3.27, 95%CI (1.73,6.19)], and for not physical distancing: having age under 25 years [OR 2.58; 95%CI (1.53,4.36)] and low socioeconomic status (SES) [OR 5.19; 95%CI (3.25,8.30)], and for no ventilation: using bus [OR 1.57; 95%CI (1.05,2.34)] were significant predictors. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that gender, type of vehicle, age, and SES were significant predictors of non-adherence to COVID-19 preventive behaviors in public transport during the pandemic. Given that social distancing is less observed in the public transportation system in Tabriz, Iran, it is necessary for government to consider and monitor guidelines to protect the passengers from COVID-19 infections by providing measures to maintain physical distance in public transportation systems. It may be possible to force vehicle owners who do not comply with health protocols to keep some distance by imposing fines.